Farmers essays

Farmers essays At the beginning of American history, agriculture was the main economic foundation. Profits gained from crops such as tobacco helped the country to prosper. Though by the late nineteenth century, new technology and the famous industrial revolution shifted the economic foundation of the United States. America was passing through a lot of political and economic changes, and the population boomed due to a massive immigration from Europeans. Still, one half of the U.S. population still consisted of farmers. As industries expanded with every decade, the situation of the farmers became harder and harder. Crops such as wheat and cotton were selling at very low prices, and this meant fewer profits for farmers. Furthermore, foreign competition, droughts, grass hopper plagues made the toiling farmers miserable and poor. During the last years of the century, all this problems caused farmers to unite and fight for what they thought was threatening their way of life such as monopolies, shortage o f money, and railroad companies. Some of their complaints were valid and well supported while others were not. The boomed of industries in the late nineteenth century, led monopolies and trusts to appear. People like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller became the first millionaires of the nation through their companies in steel and oil, respectively. However, the constantly increased of monopolies worried the farmers. In the cartoon The Farmers Voice the industries are the masters and the farmers are the slaves. Farmers worried that without competition, prices would dramatically increase, and consumption would decrease. Farmers feared the impact on their economic gains by the industrial decisions. James B. Weaver wrote in his A Call to Action: An Interpretation of the Great Uprising, Monopolies limit the price of raw material so as to impoverish the producer, drive him to a single market, and reduce the price of every class...

buy custom Signal Transduction in Neuropharmacology essay

buy custom Signal Transduction in Neuropharmacology essay According to Rosenzweig-Lipson, signal transduction is the process by which a cell can convert an input into an appropriate output, such as, the conversion of muscarinic stimulation of glandular tissue into a secretory response (Rosenzweig-Lipson, S. et al 239). In this study we examine the conformational change occurring in the receptor protein which is a consequence of agonistic binding that enables the receptor to interact with a second element in the system. It has been observed that G- protein transduces a signal to a third component an amplifying enzyme that elaborates an additional messenger which is the final component of a system, and activates a cascade of enzymes that leads to an increase in protein phosphorilation and an output or response (Sitaramayya and Ari 8). The membrane of a normal cell acts as a pathway for signals to pass through the intercellular molecules and it is that which activates transcription (Gilman 615649). These signals follow a certain rhythm and thi s series is referred to as signal transduction. Hence in this study, proteins are key components since they play very important roles in various inter-neuronal communications Membrane receptors, Second messengers, and Signal Transduction pathways When the neurotransmitter binds on to the receptor, ion channels permit the flow of ions. The receptors act on the protein channels by using a more indirect second messenger system. This is the G proteins inclusion in the transduction of from the membrane receptors to intercellular effectors. The binding of a neurotransmitter to a receptor activates the G protein this in turn causes the protein channels that gate the ion flow to open and cause migration of either ion. A new component of GPCR signal transduction Proteins are involved in several vital roles in the inter-neuronal communication. The ion channels found in the cell membranes are proteins. G proteins are heterotrimers that consist of three subunits, which include alpha, beta, and gamma (%uF061- (45 to 47 kD), %uF062- (35 kD), and %uF067- (7 to 9 kD). The alpha unit is an active subunit, which binds the guanine diphosphate in its stationary state. On the other hand, it exchanges the guanine diphosphate for the guanine triphosphate when active. During this active mode, it acts as the courier between the receptor sites and the effectors. The other sub units, which include beta and gamma, help the alpha subunit to attach to membranes. Therefore, beta and gamma subunits are deemed as passive units in the G proteins. The alpha unit activates the effectors and gets back to its resting state. The alpha unit returns to its resting state through cleaving the guanine triphosphate, attaching again to the guanine diphosphate, and joining up with the betagamma dimer (Malbon Morris 5). The %uF061-subunit binds GDP or GTP and has an intrinsic, slow GTPase activity. The G%uF061%uF062%uF067 complex in the inactivated state comprises of GDP at the nucleotide site. Binding of hormone to receptor stimulates a rapid exchange of GTP for GDP on G%uF061. When GTP binds, it causes G%uF061 to dissociate from G%uF062%uF067 and to associate with an effector protein like the adenylyl cyclase. Binding of G%uF061 (GTP) activates adenylyl cyclase. The adenylyl cyclase actively synthesizes cAMP as long as G%uF061(GTP) remains bound to it. However, the intrinsic GTPase activity of G%uF061 eventually hydrolyzes GTP to GDP, leading to dissociation of G%uF061(GDP) from adenylyl cyclase and re-association with the G%uF062%uF067 dimer, regenerating the inactive heterotrimeric G%uF061%uF062%uF067 complex. In order to facilitate neuron communication, the post-synaptic neuron should posses the receptor sites for the neurotransmitters discharged from the pre-synaptic neuron. Through binding on to the receptors, the neurotransmitters are expected to facilitate change in the post-synaptic neuron, which may cause a potential action in the post-synaptic neuron. G protein receptors are engaged in numerous diseases. An approximate of 30% of the medicinal drugs target the G protein coupled drugs. The G protein-coupled receptors engage two principal transduction pathways, which include the camp signal pathway and phosphatidylinositol (Malbon Morris 8). A simple process takes place for neuron communication to take place. The postsynaptic neuron must have receptor sites for neurotransmitters that were released by the pre-synaptic neurons. The neurotransmitters must bind on to the receptors hereby bringing about a change in the, post synaptic neuron and this is called an excitatory post synaptic potential or (EPSP). At the same time, it could be an inhibitory post synaptic potential or (IPSP). These two are produced depending on the concentrations of either sodium or chlorine ions existing in the neuron. According to Jeong, the change in concentration happens in the channeling of either sodium or chlorine ions that migration across the cell membrane (Jeong Ikeda pp. 335347). The neurotransmitter-receptor binding facilitates the opening of the protein channels. The receptor is sited on the top of the protein channel to simplify the opening of the protein channels. The neurotransmitter-receptor binding enables the protein channel to allow the ion flow. The protein channels can also be acted upon by the receptors in an indirect fashion through a second messenger system. The second messenger system is exemplified by a G proteins addition in the transduction of signals from the transmembrane receptors to intracellular effectors. Clearly, the neurotransmitter-receptor binding stimulates the G protein, which facilitates the opening of the protein channels for ion flow (Sitaramayya and Ari, 23). In a second messenger system, a ligand binds to a receptor while the G protein attaches to the receptor. The guanine diphosphate that is bound to the alpha unit is replaced by the guanine triphosphate thus the unit detaches from the rest of the G protein. In this process, the next session differs from the simple messenger system. The alpha unit fails to attach to a protein channel and instead binds to another membrane protein known as adenylyl cyclase. The Adenylyl cyclase converts adenosine triphosphate to cyclic monophosphate. The process is initiated after the alpha unit latches on to adenylyl cyclase. Furthermore, the cyclic adenosine monophosphate initiates another protein in the neuron known as protein kinease. Protein kinease is a component that is composed of two elements, which include regulatory unit and catalytic unit. Commonly, the regulatory unit scrutinizes the catalytic unit. The cyclic adenosine monophosphate, however, causes the two units to detach. The catalytic un it, which is the active component moves to the protein channels in the membrane of the ion and triggers them to open. The ion flow finally occurs and the excitatory post-synaptic potential or inhibitory post-synaptic potential are stimulated. Several second messenger systems similarly work effectively. Proteins: transducers of receptor-generated signals The G protein initiates a series of changes in the neuron and the ion channels open up. A receptor encounters a G protein in its active state. It is clear that the receptors and the G proteins are pre-coupled. The signal transduction relies on the form of the G protein. Adenylate cyclase enzyme is a type of a cellular protein that is regulated by the G protein. The activation of the Adenylate cyclase enzyme terminates when the G protein gets to the guanine diphosphate bound state. The Adenylate cyclases can also be activated in other methods, which regulate their activity. The heterotrimeric G proteins can engage in functional roles independent of the G proteins-coupled receptors. Apart from the heterotrimeric G proteins, other types of G proteins also play vital roles in the cell function. These proteins belong to a certain group known as small G proteins. They also perform their activities like the heterotrimeric G proteins. A G protein coupled receptor is a receptor that mediates the opening of the ion channels through a G protein. This component is involved in a system that renovates the external signals into an intracellular second messenger system. In this second messenger system, the neurotransmitter binds on to a receptor while the G protein attaches on to the receptor and becomes triggered. The alpha subunit, then binds on to the protein ion channel and cause it to open thus permitting ion flow. Therefore, signal transfer in this case is the vital role for the G protein. The function of G protein in the other version of the second messenger system is less undeviating. In this case, it does not activate the protein channels in the membrane. It activates a series of events that cause the opening of protein channels. This constitutes about seven membrane domains interconnected by three intercellular domains and three extracellular loops, an extra cellular N-terminal domain and an intracellular C- terminal domain. Each of the seven interconnected domains is composed of about 20- 27 amino acids. The GPRS span three environments and these are extracellular, intra-membrane as well as the intra-cellular. The conformal change of the central core will be responsible for the conformation of the intracellular loops and this will activate the binding and processes of the G protein. The activation of these proteins is then responsible for the activation of various intracellular signaling pathways. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been identified to be the target for more than half of the drugs currently on the market; this includes approximately 25% of the 100 top-selling drugs. Hence, they are considered the most important molecules in drug discovery, due to their role as receptors in many processe s in the body and their presence in all the body tissues. G-protein specificity The binding of the GPCR to some of the different proteins will determine the various inter-membrane and intracellular members resulting in the localizing of the receptors and the G protein independent signaling (Hildebrandt Iyengar, 4). These proteins include the tyrosine protein kinesis and scaffolding proteins. GPCRs can be classified according to five groups. These five families are classified according to their phylo-genetic origins. They are glutamate, rhodopsin, frizzled, adhesive, and secretin and these form the GRAFS classification system. The rhodopsin family makes up the largest portion and was formerly named as family one or family A. It has the largest number of receptors in the group and 700 members. The group has some similarities of phylogenetic characteristics, but also has some intrinsic characteristics. There are about four more classifications from the rhodopsin group. There are three classes of adrenergic receptors of the super family of G- protein coupled receptors and they mediate a large variety of peripheral as well as the central responses to the endogenous catecholamines. All of the adreno-receptor subfamilies are comprised of three receptor subtypes that that are categorized by a distinct heterotrimeric G protein coupling. One concept that shares characteristics with inverse agonism is that of protean agonism. In this way, some ligands display both characteristics of both agonism and inverse agonism in a single GPCR. This event is quite rare and has only been observed at a handful of GPCRs and is not well understood at the present, however, it provides some notion into how the ligands modulate the GPCR behavior. In normal theorem, any preparation that is used in the measurement of GPCR stimulation by agonists can also may be used to study the inhibitory effects that come about from inverse agonism. This is because both groups of agonists and inverse agonists produce their effects from balancing or modulating the active as well as the inactive receptors. However, there should be an amount of spontaneous receptor activity needed to measure individual effects of either class of ligand. Similarly, the detection of inverse agonism requires that spontaneous receptor activity be quite distinguishable from that of background noise. This according to experience will not be the actual case. The measuring of inverse agonism and its effects intrinsically is quite difficult. The conditions for doing the same therefore will be the same as by measuring the receptor activation from the agonists. When a ligand is found to have a negative effect on an agonist, independent GPCR then the one carrying out the experiment must find out if it is genuine. The presence of endogenous activating ligands also needs to be ruled out of the equation. If that is not possible then one need to demonstrate the effects of a strong inverse those of the neutral antagonists or weak inverse agonists overshadow agonists. At the same time, the confusing effects of the related receptor subtypes if any are present at the time should be considered. There is a differential set for G protein partners, which allow it to initiate different signaling pathways in order to trigger diverse and even opposed functional outcomes in response to the same stimuli. The distribution of tissue according to the different adrenal receptor subtypes varies quite differently while conferring to the different catelochamines (Ciruela 31). G protein coupled receptors can activate G proteins and initiate the signaling in the presence of the agonist. The receptor activity can be quite spontaneous but can be regulated by certain antagonists. A process that many refer to as inverse agonism causes this and the inverse agonists job is to produce biochemical effects that are opposite to the agonists. This will dispute with the theorem that many support as to state the antagonists lack intrinsic activity. This would suggest their work is to preclude the binding of agonists to the receptors solely. The work of inverse agonism has been displayed in a wide variet y of systems. These include endogenously and heterogeneously expressed GPCRs. On the other hand, the contribution of inverse agonism to the overall therapeutic effects of antagonism is hard to etermine considering the continual presence of the endogenous agonists in the normal physiological conditions that are set in the state. However, the proof to such evidence of awaits the confirmation and evidence that spontaneous receptor signaling is significant or it changes in terms of receptor density or distribution. These have to be attributable to the effects of inverse agonism at the cellular and the sub cellular level. These also occur in intact organisms Thus, inverse agonism can be assessed at the level of the receptor, the G protein, and the effector as well as the effects that follow downstream. When considering the technique that works best in this issue it might depend on the system that is currently under investigation. Mall of the ends in this case, may not necessarily yield the equivalent results that many expect thus, it would be worthwhile trying to assign the ligand activity to multiple levels. The receptor, however, facilitates binding of the inverse agonists which increases by the guanine nucleotides whereas the agonists have an opposite reaction of decreased binding. Receptor-dependent specificity The past decade has seen many events whereby cell surface carbohydrates play a role in signal transduction events. This was hypothesized some time ago that the complex structure of cell surface carbohydrates was there to play an informational role (Haltiwanger 593). The numerous developmentally relevant pathways are affected by proteoglycans as well as the recent importance demonstrations of fucose modifications in notch and nodal signaling. This suggests that the time for uncovering the involvement of the glycans in signaling is just beginning. Many other proteins are involved in developmental or signaling events that are predicted to go through modification with O-fucose. At the same time, the EGF sites are also modified at consensus sites between the first as well as the second conserved cysteines. Many of the predicted O-glucose sites on the notch receptor have conservation because of evolution. This proposes that the modifications will play an important role in notch signaling. The other important form of O-fucose is mapped on to the consensus site on the thrombospondin type 1 repeats. However, this type repeats on a heparan-sulfate-binding domain and that suggests that the alteration may activate reactions at the site. These results and progress suggests that the surface has hardly been scratched the surface in terms of the role of glycosolation in the regulation of signal transduction. The objective is to find a link between these factors and the brain in neuropharmacology. Thus, we must become fully aware of what it means. Neuropharmacology is study of drugs that interact with neurons in the brain and this affects the mood, sensation, thinking and overall behavior. There are some of these alterations in behavior that result from drug intake but not all. RGS proteins as drug target GPCRs are excellent targets for pharmaceutical treatments since they comprise of the most widely screened classes of signal transduction targets (Auld, et al., 2002). Major diseases involve the malfunction of the receptors; hence they become the most important drug target for pharmacological intervention. Thus, changes result in the actions of the brains chemical transmitters, which is under the field of brain neuro-chemistry. A lot of interest is coming to the fore over molecular neuroscience in both clinical as well as basic research. This is because of new findings on topics such as neuro-peptides, neuro-hormones that have been disseminated into a number of topics that keeps on increasing with the time. The topic focuses on new drugs that will be used in neurology which some consider as the final frontier of the medical world. The aim is to also modify the processes of the brain on the premise of improving on some characteristics. These include memory; mood as well as attention de ficits that people may have and give enhancements in these sectors. However, they would not be impaired by disease or illness beforehand thus; it would cause much debate on the ethical field. There is also a field dedicated to this known as neuro-ethics. This field is defined as the study of legal and social questions that arise when scientific study and discoveries of the brains processes come into the medical field in practice. The problem in the real essence lies with the organ. It is the brain, which we are dealing with and it is responsible for making all of us unique in our own individual way. This gives us our personalitys emotions, memories emotions, dreams, and creative abilities, (Neuro-ethics 1). Therefore, it is the driving force behind the motives of our individual actions. Many out there would support the medical development of the sector of neuroscience in order to help deal with mental illness as well as basic research to further our understanding. However, they would rather the journey end there, as they are not too comfortable with getting to know too much about the human brain. The human brain is a special piece of art and holds a special place because it gives everyone his or her own autonomy. Manipulating this organ is not the same as operating and altering another part of the body like the lungs, kidney, or the heart. It is because of its sensitive nature that not too many people would be thrilled about giving stimulating drugs to alter intelligence of mood set up. This would be manipulating a persons character and would cause many uncomfortable feelings. Enhancement at this stage is not confined to neuroscience but there is a sense that something is quite distinct about enhancing things to do with cognitive functions as well as behavior. RGS inhibitors as clinical therapeutics Neural disorders for one have their origin in form of shifts and delicate balances in the neuro-chemicals that could originate from cell damage of degeneration. However, the brain is quite flexible and capable of restoration of certain imbalances. This can be done by increasing the sensitivity of the brain to a certain neuro-transmitter. However, this is not to say that it cannot also fail. When a substance such as dopamine is depleted, especially when talking about Parkinsons disease, then a disease or severe neural disorder may come, as a result. The fundamental research in neuropharmacology investigates the processes going on the brain and how drugs introduced to that system interact with those processes. One of the research tools that many like to employ is the building models of the neuro-chemical as well as the neuro-physiological processes. These aim to fit the data on the laboratory studies on the animal models. In a certain pharmacy department in a university, this happened by electrophysiological and microdyalisis methods in order to track the nerve signals. Nerves propagate their electric signals by conducting an electric pulse and this is known as an action potential. Endogenous RGS-protein function The signal in turn activates release of some transmitter chemicals at the terminals of the cell that affect the receptors of the next nerve cell in the relay that in turn continues the cycle. On the other hand, placing an electrode inside the brain will allow the individual to monitor further electrical activity. The release of the transmitters will be monitored while using the micro dialysis probe. This probe would also be used to release these chemicals locally and measure the full effects. At the pharmacy department at this university, neuro-physiological pathways are studied using two techniques. The specific studies that occur when relating several variables together that gives an understanding of the function of the brain area. To give a basic visual description of the neural circuits, bow and arrow models can be drawn that represent negative and positive influence relations. These models will be further tested for their correct nature and in this way, used to explain the functioning of this system. In this way, newly developed drug compounds will give a foothold in this sector because they will play the role of revising and refining the model as well as the experiments that are conducted. The model in turn will play the role of getting to know the effects. This would be in such a way , that if a drug used were to selectively favor one particular type of pathway then, it could still be used to further explore the function of that pathway. The data acquired from this may serve to refine the model and in this way, the effects may be explained as well as predicted. At this university, there is a group of nuclei called the base ganglia. These nuclei play an all-important role in the control of voluntary behavior. Scope of review in Parkinsons disease In Parkinsons disease a portion of them that do not survive decay due to a cause that yet remains unknown. However, this portion is a supplier of an important neuro-transmitter called dopamine. This transmitter is postulated to perform a modulating function. It is also thought to create a delicate balance in the signals that are bound for the cortex. In order for this to work, however, a schematic model should be used to represent neural activity in the brain ganglia especially according to Parkinsons disease. If this were visually illustrated on a paper, an arrow would serve as a neural pathway. This would consist of a bundle of individual nerve cells. The box in this case, would represent the nucleus or a clustering of nerve cells. The model gives a dual function to dopamine. It shows a direct path from the striatum to the SNR while inhibiting the indirect path via the STN. The balance creates an inhibition in two fronts, which are the thalamus and the brainstem. However, when it becomes nearly depleted then the balance becomes disrupted once again and this results in the increase of activation in an area known as the SNR. This state of hyper-activation in this region causes inhibition of brainstem neurons, which go hand in hand with some symptoms of Parkinsons disease. Most of the traditional research that goes to Parkinsons disease focuses on restoring levels of dopamine in the brain. However, the compound cannot be administered as an oral substitute because it cannot go through the blood brain barrier. On the other hand, it was found that L-dopa could pass through the barrier and it metabolizes while in the brain to form Dopamine. Thus, at the present it is the most successful method of dealing with Parkinsons symptoms. Possible clinical uses of RGS inhibitors Similarly administering L-dopa to the brain raises dopamine levels in other parts of the body. This high concentration of dopamine in the body on the other hand, causes feelings of nausea as a side effect. This is due to stimulation of dopamine receptors in other parts of the body. The therapeutic effect however, declines over a period like three to five years. Further research into the issue is finding out the effects of highly selective dopamine receptors that interact with certain dopamine receptors. The functions of the brain are quite dynamic. In neuro-biology, it is described as complex dynamic system. In physics the tools that people use for modeling dynamic systems is by employing differential equations. The variables show the properties of the system. This variables change over the course of time. When the relationship between those variables is ascertained then one can get the value of these values and thus, one can see the original state of the system. Therefore, empirical study of both the brain and the behavior of Parkinsons research will result in correlating variables of the activation frequency of the nuclei as well as the neural pathways and local concentrations of different types on neurotransmitters. RGSG interaction site the A-site (mark Herlitze (Eur. J. Biochem) However, these relations are not enough to dub the equation as quantitative thus; the relation is only seen as qualitative. There are many results on study on the brain whereby the change of one variable in one direction would cause another variable to be perceived as moving in another direction, as a result. Here the theory would explain why in Parkinsons disease, the activation of the thalamus decreases with the decrease of concentration of DA in the striatum (Peijnenburg 351). In the event that these events are insufficient to provide a model with the help of an ordinary differential equation, they can still be represented by a more abstract qualitative equation. G protein signaling in the C Until the recent past, it was thought that synaptic transmission was conceptualized some processes where the neurotransmitters would act through their receptors and cause changes in conductances of certain ion channels to cause excitatory or inhibitions on the postsynaptic potential. If taken in this view the human brain would seem to be a very complex diagram whereby the complexity of the visual representation would be in the complex wiring. It has become quite evident over the past twenty years that neurotransmitters elicit complicated effects on the neurons that serve as their targets. This led to a better and complete understanding of synaptic transmission. In addition to the fast elicitation of the post synaptic potentials and the neuro-transmitter receptor interactions influence most of the activities of the target neuron through a complicated network of intracellular messenger systems. The activation of most catecholamine receptors and most of the other types of receptors is transmitted to the intracellular sites via the G proteins. These in turn couple the receptors to other effector proteins. These would include the numerous intracellular second messenger pathways as well as the ion channels. The generation of these second messengers leads to various physiological effects courtesy to their arrival. In most of the cases, the intracellular cascades would involve the changes that occur in protein phosphporylation. This would be the removal of protein phosphatases from the target phosphoproteins or the addition happening through protein kinases. The altered phosphorylation of the phosphoproteins could also be considered as a third messenger. This also alters the physiological nature and activity. This happens with all of the neurotransmitters. Catelochamine regulation of the second messenger and the protein pathways influence a big part of the neuron function through the phosphorylation of different types of the neural proteins. These types of intracellular processes produce some sort of quick response to the neurotransmitter and this can be regulation of the ion channel or neuronal firing rate (Ross Wilkie, 795827). At the same time, these processes may produce a short-term modulatory effect on the neuronal function such as the regulation of the response of the neuron relating to similar or different neurotransmitters. These changes can also cause long-term modulation effects on the functioning of the neuron and this can be expressed through gene expression regulation. These changes would require altered synthesis of receptors as well as ion channels, cellular proteins and other forms of learning. There may be an exception of synaptic transmission that is mediated through receptors containing intrinsic enzyme activity or ion channels. The family of the trans-membrane could be involved in signaling in the nervous system. The G proteins get their name from their ability to bind with guanine nucleotides, which are guanine diphosphate and triphosphate as termed earlier. Since more and more is becoming known in the field, additional information is being revealed on certain materials otherwise thought to be dormant. Zinc for one, has long been thought to be a mere static component of the protein family. It was thought to only provide catalytic or structural functions to the group. There is recent research that indicates there is a further use for the metal, especially a particular type known as an intracellular pool of labile zinc, in signal transduction. The homeostasis process of zinc is under tight control, whereby, a specialized system of transport proteins regulates the entry and the export through the plasma membrane and through intracellular distribution. While in the cell, zinc can be stored in the vesicles. These are called zincosomes and the regulation on the labile zinc in the plasma is observed (Wu et al 1q31.). There are several reports that describe the fluctuations of labile zinc happening after the stimulation of cells on several established pathways. These include mitogen activated protein kinases and calcium that has been showing up. The important point is that is has been discovered that labile zinc is essential for well-known and established physiological signals. The investigations of the molecular mechanism of how zinc exerts the effects have come to identify that it directly reacts with the several components of signaling the pathways, which include the interleukin receptor associated kinase 1. These observations conclude that zinc is a second bivalent metal ion. Actions of the ANS on the cardiovascular system It also has the function as the second messenger in the cardiovascular system. In any case, it would seem that signal transduction is the key. The term first made the mark in biological literature in the seventies. It appeared as a title word as early as 1979. Most [physical scientists and electronic engineers had earlier used the term to conversion of energy or information from one form to another. An example being that a microphone transduces sound waves to electric signals. However, attention went to the biological application and the GTP and GTP binding proteins in the metabolic regulation. The term was borrowed from other fields to describe its role. The use of the term grew in momentum and by the year, 2000 about 12 percent of all of the papers that used the word cell had mentions of the word transduction. In the main issue when considering signal transduction, there is concern about the external influences and this could mean the presence of specific hormones and how they coul d affect what happens inside the target cells. There is some difficulty however, since the hormones being hydrophilic meaning the substances are unable to pass through. Thus, their influence is exerted from the outside and the membranes of the cells are very thin, and effectively impermeable to ions as well as polar molecules. Even foe small molecules such as urea, the permeability is still about ten thousand times lower than that of water. Thus for a molecule like that of adrenaline the permeation is still quite too low to measure. Thus, the evolution of these receptors has accompanied the development of the mechanisms and it is these, which permit the external chemical signaling molecules. These are the first messengers to direct the activities within the cells in many ways with high specificity. Signal transduction has delved into the world of the intracellular activities as those within the cell. There should also be a consideration of the adherence of the cell surface to other cells and enquires how this works in terms of asking how it affects the responses to the soluble agonists such as growth factors as well as the how the soluble agonists a ffect the cellular adherence. The event itself is an important in the maintenance of the stem cell compartments as well as the epithelial mesenchymal transition. These molecules affect the adhesion and therefore serve as the targets for the signals that are generated within the cell (Zhong Neubig, pp. 837845). These are two exemplified aspects in regulation of survival, regulation as well as leukocyte trafficking. Adhesion molecules are very important especially when it comes to the nerve cell differentiation, functioning of the synapse as well as gene expression in the epithelial cells. At first, these adhesive molecules were thought to be a form of glue but this turned out to be an untruth. At the present, they are recognized as receptors and the act as signaling molecules. However, the ligands that are involved with these adhesion molecules are insoluble. They are presented themselves on the adjacent cells by an extracellular matrix that happens to be on the surface of epithelia, or by a mass of connective tissue. These adhesive molecules development became known in the 1970s as a result of an investigation interestingly about the brain. It was realized that the organizational system of the cells that were in the central nervous system needed a systematic and dynamic process of cell gui dance as well as cell adhesion. This would go on to drive the direction seeking processes of neutrite growth and the formation of synapses. On this account, there were two main ideas that were considered. One was suggested during the development in order to establish precise cell-to-cell contacts. The interacting cells would each present the adequate unique adhesion molecules that would fit into each other like a lock and key simulation. The second idea would be that the set of adhesion molecules would be limited although their building capacity is limited over time. For instance, one could say that offering the same molecule during the process of outgrowth. This would be interpreted as a low affinity state. The cell would then turn to convert the adhesion molecule into a high affinity state. This might help in binding to a counter part in a nearby cell. It appears that there is truth to both of the propositions. The number of the adhesion molecules is limited and their capacity to interact with the counter receptors is regulated at the levels of expression and by their state of binding. In the part of immunology, the set of adhesion molecules that is set on the cell surface as well as the state of activation is dubbed as the area code (De Vries et al, pp 235-271). Some chemicals in the brain assist with the functions of releasing the synapses with the neurotransmitters. Neuro-peptides are released at the synapse region along with the neurotransmitters. They differ from the neurotransmitters in the fact that they are found at lower concentrations and are derived from larger inactive molecules that would be precursors, synthesized in the soma. These neuro-peptide precursors are transported down the axon while they are in the process of getting processed and cleaved. They are then degraded right after the synaptic release. The precursor peptides can then be processed differently according to the different neurons. They can act as multiple sites whereby they include the pre synaptic and post synaptic sites this could then include cells that are far away from their site of release. Peptide release however, requires calcium. The quantity of the release in this case is proportional to the neuronal firing. Most of the peptide binding sites are G- prot ein coupled receptors that activate enzyme effectors or ion channels. Many psychoactive drugs alter the neuronal signaling by acting as endogenous transmitters to activate neurotransmitter receptors. The other drugs act by altering synthesizing the release, uptake, or degradation of a neurotransmitter. The chronic use of psychotropic drugs exerts the common effects through the regulation of neuronal signaling elements that would occur at a variety of levels. These include the neurotransmitters, G proteins, second messengers, as well as the protein kinases. Chronic drug agonist treatment introduces the down regulation of the receptors by reducing the receptor synthesis that takes place (Hammer and Kaplan, 59). Other drugs such as anti psychotics may produce effects at a variety of levels, which include genomic, neuro-chemical, as well as neuro-physiological. At this, level the acute treatment antipsychotic treatment of the dopaminmergic neurons. On the other hand, chronic antipsychotic drug treatment produces the delayed inactivation of dopamine neuron firing. The condition of the brain and the reactions to different drugs affect whether one would be an addict or not. For one, neurosomatic patients do not fit the criteria for addiction prone people. This is in the same way, that chronic pain patients are not prone to addictions. Drug abuse in terms of medicine would be termed as craving higher amounts and doses of drugs that would cause acute damage to the patient upon intake (Goldstein, 331). Some chronic pain patients would argue their dosage requires escalation on a regular basis; however, they still hold to the line. These individuals are the ones at risk and have the most cases, of dropping from counseling. The sensitization of behavior encompasses the ability of stimulated cells NAc cells to secrete peptides as well as related substances. Signal transducing pathways may also include the regulation of alternative splicing. In this way, the use of alternative exons keeps changing during the development or in response to other stimuli. Neurons can change their molecular structure when they become activated, (Chen Lambert, 2000). This can be done by communication with other neurons or by receiving information from the outside. In the basic definition of the sense, a drug is a substance that brings about a biological change within the functions of a cell. The agonist, in this case, binds to and activates the receptor. The agonists come in various forms whereby a full agonist binds and activates the receptor with full efficiency. A good example in this case, of a full agonist is isoproterenol and its mimics the ligand epinephrine. Other drugs act as pharmaceutical antagonists. They might bind the receptors but do not lead to any signaling by the cell. On the contrary, they interfere with the ability of an agonist to activate the receptor. In this case, the effect of a pure or neutral antagonist depends entirely on it preventing the binding of the agonist molecules and blocking their biological functions. An endogenous ligand like serotonin may bind and stimulate the receptors that couple to different subsets of the G proteins. It is becoming apparent that the relative efficacy of compounds may actually depen d on the conditions used in the experiment. Inverse agonists on the other hand, are easier to identify with functional screens versus classical binding essays. When a receptor lacks the constitutive activity, a neutral agonist in turn acts as the neutral competitive agonist (Chan Otte, pp. 10-20). This was emphasized by a recent report where it was thought to be the neutral antagonists of the 5HT, which were shown to be the inverse agonists. Future prospects The regulations of signal transduction within critical regions of the brain have effects on the intracellular signal generated by multiple neurotransmitter systems. The effects represent putative mediators of the therapeutic actions of the available antidepressants and mood stabilizers, mediated by their effects on a network of interconnected neurotransmitter pathways. For many refractory patients with brain disorders, new drugs that resemble the "traditional" drugs that alter neurotransmitter levels either directly or indirectly and those that bind to cell surface receptors which are of little medical importance (Arshavsky Pugh, pp. 11-14). This happens so because of the assumption that the target receptors are functionally intact, furthermore the altered synaptic activity will be transduced to modify the postsynaptic "throughput" of the system. However, abnormalities existing in signal transduction pathways suggest that improved refractory to conventional medications is obtained b y direct targeting of postreceptor sites. Discoveries on a variety of mechanisms involved in the formation and inactivation of second messengers allows for development of pharmacological agents designed to "site-specifically" target signal transduction pathways. However, this is more complex than the development of receptor-specific drugs. This has made it possible to design novel agents that may have implications on the second messenger systems due to their heterogeneous nature at the molecular and cellular level linked to receptors in various ways and expressed in different cell types in different stoichiometries. Furthermore, since signal transduction pathways show unique characteristics depending on the rate of guanine nucleotide exchange, G protein conformational states, GTP hydrolysis, interaction with different RGS proteins, and cytosol-to-membrane translocation of PKC isozymes and receptor kinases, and many other ways, they provide in built-in targets for relative specificity of action, that relies on the "set point" of the substrate. In this study, we can summarize that due to technological advances in both biochemistry and molecular biology, understanding the complexities of the regulation of neuronal function is greatly enhanced in our abilities. Buy custom Signal Transduction in Neuropharmacology essay

Occupational Safety and Health (OSHA) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Occupational Safety and Health (OSHA) - Essay Example Prior to the 1970s, such risks were left to the companies to handle and there was minimal intervention from the federal government by way of work safety-related policies and regulatory standards. By the late 1960s, workplace accidents resulted to the death of an average 14,000 workers per year while an estimated two million more were harmed or disabled. Furthermore, there was too little known about the health effects of the variety of chemicals that were being churned out of factories even as environmental advocates have been raising the alarm on the possible dangers of exposure. This disturbing rates and figures prompted President Nixon to sign the Occupational Safety and Health Act in Dec. 17, 19701. The enactment of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSH Act) marked the first time that a federal program was established to protect and ensure the health and safety of the entire country’s work force by reducing job-related illness, injury, disability, accidents, and death. Then-Secretary of Labor James Hodgson’s first step was to establish the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), a special agency within the United States Department of Labor tasked to implement and enforce the said Act; OSHA was established effective April 28, 19712. In order to carry out the mission which it was set out for, OSHA had to start from scratch, using the Bureau of Labor Standards as the nucleus from which to build up the program3. The OSH Act also established the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as the agency to conduct researches on known and possible work-related safety and health problems and to recommend regulatory standards which OSHA should consider based on their findings; as well as that, NIOSH was also to provide technical assistance to OSHA4. OSHA’s principal client groups are mainly organized labor and the business community; as such, they have played active roles

The Alibaba Group Business Ehincs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

The Alibaba Group Business Ehincs - Essay Example The English-based site known as alibaba.com focuses on business-to-business kind of trading, especially for many international buyers who strive to contact sellers in China. The Chinese-based website known as china.com concentrates on business-to-business transactions within China, and finally, there is www.taobao.com, a consumer-to-consumer business site for Chinese clients. The Japanese-based website called Japan.alibaba.com mainly focuses on Japanese customers. At the moment, the Alibaba Group comprises the following subordinate-companies: Taobao.com, an online auction website for clients; Alipay, an online payments site, processing majorly payments emanating from China; Alisoft, a web services provider to China’s Small and Medium-sized ventures; Alimama, which is an online marketing exchange forum, that allows web publishers and advertisers to trade via online promotion inventory; China Yahoo!, which is a search engine; as well as Koubei.com, the largest communities in Chi na for exchanging essential life information including as food, clothes, travel and housing (Bidwai 2010). Importance of business ethics and their impact on the organization Ethics means a collection of moral principles, a perception of right and wrong, goodness and badness of dealings as well as the motives and repercussions of these actions. When applied to business context, ethics refers to the study right and wrong, good and evil, and just and unjust dealings of businessmen. It refers to the study of business circumstances, decisions and activities where issues of what is right or otherwise are addressed. It addresses not only commercial enterprises, but also government entities, not-for-profit organizations (NGOs), charitable institutions among others (Crane & Matten 2010). At Alibaba.com, ethics is very important to the company in general and the HR department to be specific, for the following stated reasons: Ethics tally to essential human needs. All men naturally desire to be ethical; both in private life as well as in business where. By being a manager man knows that his judgment may influence a countless number of employees. Furthermore, most p eople desire to be part of a company that they can both respect and also be proud of, given that they perceive its purposed activities are honest and also beneficial to the whole society. The Group’s HR managers aspire to respond to the said needs of their employees. On the other hand, the managers feel an equal requirement to be proud of the company which they are directing. These basic ethical necessities force the organization to have an ethical orientation (Crane & Matten 2010). Values establish credibility with the larger public. A company that is perceived by the general public to be ethical as well as socially responsive gets to be honored as well as respected even by clients with no intimate acquaintance of its actual operations. There will always be automatic bias in favour of its services or products, given that people believe that the business offers value in exchange for their money. Its public concern will attract an instant response. Given Alibaba’s CSR ( corporate social responsibility) comprehensive program, together with the existing code of business ethics, the company has been able to craft credibility with the general public it serves. Values confer upon the management integrity with its employees. Values are meant to be a mutual language to bring the company’s leadership as well as its people together. Company ethics whenever perceived by the employees as genuine enable the building of common goals, language and values. At Alibaba.com, the HR department has realized standing with its employees because it has been able to register

Globalisation on Service Economies in the Uk Essay Example for Free

Globalisation on Service Economies in the Uk Essay MacKinnon amp; Cumbers (2011) defined globalisation as †¦ the increased connections †¦ in flows of goods, services, money, information and people across national and continental borders. . The globalisation process may be decomposed into constituent processes in order to explain the impacts it has had, which will be discussed more later. In turn, a service economy is one, or part of one, that is based on trade in services. A service is characterised by its intangibility, inseparability (the simultaneous production and consumption of services), heterogeneity and perishability over time and space (Regan 1963; Rathmell 1966; Shostack 1977; Zeithaml et al 1985, cited in Wolak 1998). Alternatively, services are economic activities which have no direct involvement with agriculture, mining, or manufacturing (OECD 2000). Both macro and meso-scale impacts will be examined, starting with the macro; how the service sector as a whole has changed and how globalisation may have fundamentally changed the concept of what a service might be. Inequality as a result of globalisation will then be discussed with particular reference to the North-South divide, before examining market structure changes in terms of levels of competition in the service sector. Finally, meso-scale impacts will be considered, emphasising wage differences in the UKs service sector. Figure [ 1 ]: Percentage share of employment in the UK by sector, 1980-2008 Source: ONS 2009, cited in Faulconbridge 2010 The most profound impact has been the expansion of the service sector since the onset of globalisation in the mid-20th century. Figure 1 shows the increase in service employment from 1980 2008. Further to this, the %GDP generated by the service sector in this same period rose by approximately 20% (OECD 1996, cited in Julius ;amp; Butler 1998), closely mirroring the data in figure 1. Explanation for this can be found in the international division of labour (IDL) that has occurred, in which agriculture and manufacturing have moved abroad to areas that have a comparative advantage over the UK in these sectors. Bryson (2008) referred to this process as the first global shift. The result is, as Figure 1 shows, that as agriculture and manufacturing decline in the UK, services fill the gap that they have left behind. But what led to the first global shift? Offshoring, the act of transferring (predominantly lower-skilled) operations to least-cost locations abroad, is a relatively new concept which has occurred with globalisation (Coe et al 2007). In particular, the rise of Transnational Corporations (TNCs) that are involved with multiple economic sectors, has created a pronounced IDL with East Asia as a dominant choice of location for outsourcing and offshoring. An example of this is Primark Ltd, a subsidiary of Associated British Foods plc. Primarks retail stores -the service part of its operations- are predominantly in the UK, but it sources its products (manufacturing that would otherwise be done in the UK) from East Asia (Primark 2011). This split encapsulates one way in which services in the UK have grown; at the expense of other sectors. Another explanation for the expansion is the liberalisation of the UK economy. As globalisation took hold, the view that free trade was the most efficient way to trade became dominant, a philosophy termed neoliberalism (Peet et al 2011). The result was the formation of trade blocs and international organisations, for example the development of the European Union into what it is today. Flows of capital, labour and goods between constituents of the EU are uninhibited by tariffs and quotas, leading to a disproportionate increase of trade in services between the UK and Europe as the costs of trade fell. Evidence for how liberalism has worked is found in the Big Bang in London. In 1986 the UK government attempted the most rapid, and most comprehensive regulatory relaxation ever attempted by an exchange (Clemons amp; Weber 1990: 233). By abolishing trade restrictions such as the minimum scale for commissions and opening the exchange to outsiders, deregulation made the City more attractive as a marketplace, thus regaining its competitive advantage which it had lost to other cities such as New York (Clemons amp; Weber 1990). But as Londons capital-intensive sector grew in size and scale, so did the whole service sector. Wages were pushed upwards and created a mood of optimism (The Economist 2011), increasing the demand for lower-paid services such as cleaning, which are vital for a city to function (Sokol 2011). As well as this, knowledge-based services such as accountancy or stock broking also flourished due to the increased volume of trade. Globalisation, more specifically the spread of technology, has also changed the fundamentals of a service. The earlier definition of service comes from literature from the mid-to-late 20th century, but more recently services have begun to transcend the characteristics of being inseparable and perishable, allowed by technological advancements (OECD, 2000). An example of this can be found by examining the relatively new concept of internet search engines; it is a service produced at one point in time, yet it is available for use at almost any point in time and space, and by virtually unlimited amounts of people. Through technology, a whole host of different types of services have arisen, contributing to the expansion of the service sector. One particular new type of service is a business service (BS). Shown in figure 1, the increase in employment in BSs since 1980 is due to firms externalising and outsourcing work (Faulconbridge 2010), for example employing an accountant from a specialist accountancy firm rather than one in-house. Externalisation can be explained by the concept of the spatial division of expertise (Bryson amp; Rusten 2006, cited in Daniels et al 2008), which exploits the theory of comparative advantage for knowledge and expertise, at a meso-scale. As such, the demand for BSs has increased, pushing forward BSs prominence in the UK economy. Another impact is the widening of the North-South divide in England, observed at least as early as 1988 (Green 1988), during the Thatcher governments implementation of neoliberalistic policies. Evidence for this is found in much literature (Martin, 2010; French et al 2010; Mackinnon ;amp; Cumbers, 2011; Bryson, 2008), arguing that the spatial shift to services in the UK has been uneven; growth in knowledge and capital intensive services have been concentrated in the South-East and London, whilst labour-intensive (and therefore likely to be lower-paid) services developed in the rest of the UK, in particular the North. This spatial inequality of the UK service economy can be attributed to a number of globalisation factors, but one of importance was the already-established spatial division of expertise between London and the rest of the UK. London had been the capital of the workshop of the world, thus established as a centre of knowledge, so as global markets became more integrated, and with events such as the Big Bang, the size and scale at which Londons knowledge economy operated increased disproportionately relative to the rest of the UKs. Further to this, the divide is exacerbated by exposure to world market forces that results from liberalisation. The financial crisis of 2007 which started in the USA caused the collapse of Northern Rock, RBS, and HBOS, major banks whose headquarters were based in Newcastle and Edinburgh. French et al (2010) argued that their fates signalled the end of Edinburgh and Newcastle as regional financial centres, thus further eroding the spatial equality of types of services in the UK. Indeed, Newcastle is increasingly being known as being a location of choice for outsourcing call centres (Richardson et al 2000). Exposure to world markets was mentioned when discussing spatial inequality caused by globalisation. But exposure has also meant an increased level of competition in the service sector as TNCs expand their operations. An example of this has been the inward foreign investment in the supermarket industry by firms such as Aldi since 1989, creating competition and adversely changing the market structure from the view of domestic firms. Aldi hoped to create 1500 new jobs from 2008-2013 (Wallop 2008), implying that inward foreign investment has brought positive impacts for service sector employment. On the other hand there are some service industries for which increased competition has had very few positive impacts, notably the coastal tourism industry. Blackpools local economy is based heavily upon services related to tourism, but with the advancement of travel technology exposing this market to international competition, the tourism sector has declined considerably in recent years (Singleton 2009) along with its related industries. Figure [ 2 ]: Index of rise in Gross Weekly Real Earnings for full-time males 1978 2008 Source: Lansley (2009) Inequality can also be found at a meso-scale, in particular, the increase in the difference between the highest paid and lowest paid workers. Figure 2 shows that the rate of increase at the 90th percentile in the male wage distribution has been far higher than that at the 10th percentile. Although figure 2 does not isolate service wages from other wages, this rising inequality is still significant as services made up almost 90% of the UK economy in 2008 (figure 1). Van Reenen amp; Bell (2010) showed that the increase in the top end of the wage distribution has been mostly in financial services. Much recent media coverage has indeed focussed on high bankers bonuses. The causes of this may be partially explained with by theories which do not fit in the context of globalisation, for example the decline of trade unions being responsible for lowering wages at the bottom of the wage distribution (Van Reenen ;amp; Bell 2010). However, in a globalisation context, offshoring plays a major role. Offshoring, as explained before, moves lower-skilled jobs to least-cost locations. This means that domestic labour supply is now competing with labour supply abroad. If labour can be supplied abroad for cheaper, the domestic price of labour (i. . UK wages) is depressed, thus explaining the low rate at which low-skilled wages are rising in the context of higher-skilled wages. Alternatively, domestic demand for unskilled labour has fallen, resulting in the lowering of unskilled wages (Slaughter ;amp; Swagel 1997) Furthermore, influxes of migrants, particularly from the EU, have contributed to t he impacts on the labour market. Whilst skilled migrants help to tackle the UK skills shortage, unskilled migrants provide excess labour market supply; lowering unskilled wages and raising unemployment figures. An alternative explanation is the migrant division of labour (Wills et al 2010), where foreign-born workers are more likely to take lower-paid jobs in the UK because the wage is still higher than what they might get paid in their home country, so driving down wages of lower-paid jobs in general. At the other end of the scale, the highest-skilled wages are being pushed upwards disproportionately because as global markets become more integrated, the rate of increase in global demand for skilled labour outstrips that of the global supply of skilled labour. Evidence for the concept of demand outstripping supply comes from Richardson (2009, p. 326): †¦ even in times of relatively high unemployment, employers frequently cite skills shortages as one of the business difficulties that they face. In conclusion, explanations of impacts of globalisation on UK services tend to be constituent processes of globalisation which are inextricably linked: the exposure to world markets due to trade liberalisation, offshoring, technology, and migration, but the impacts they cause vary greatly. Explanations may also rely on economic theory, for example, the impacts on the labour market. Exposure to world market forces, such as the current Eurozone crisis, may mean Londons position within the UK is compromised like Newcastles and Edinburghs was. Additionally, as shown by the contrast between supermarkets and tourism in the UK, impacts and their explanations are industry-specific. However, it must be realised that globalisation offers only partial explanation of the impacts discussed.  Politics, economics, sociology as well as wider geography play a fundamental role in particular, UK governments have played a vastly important role in shaping outcomes of globalisation.

Cloning - It’s Time to Stop the Cesorship of Science :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics

It’s Time to Stop the Cesorship of Science How responsible are scientists for science and its applications? In a recent issue of the journal Science the 1995 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, Sir Joseph Rotblat, proposes a Hippocratic oath for scientists. He is strongly opposed to the idea that science is neutral and that scientists are not to be blamed for its misapplication. Therefore, he proposes an oath, or pledge, initiated by the Pugwash Group in the United States (Science 286, 1475 1999). "I promise to work for a better world, where science and technology are used in socially responsible ways. I will not use my education for any purpose intended to harm human beings or the environment. Throughout my career, I will consider the ethical implications of my work before I take action. While the demands placed upon me might be great, I sign this declaration because I recognise that individual responsibility is the first step on the path to peace." These are indeed noble aims to which all citizens should wish to subscribe, but it does present some severe difficulties in relation to science. Contrary to Rotblat's view I claim that reliable scientific knowledge is morally and ethically neutral and ethics only enter when science is applied to making a product, for example genetically modified foods (Is science dangerous? Nature 398, 281). If genes are responsible for determining some of our behaviour, that is the way the world is - it is neither good nor bad. Knowledge can be used for both good and evil. Of course, scientists in their work have the responsibilities of all citizens to do no harm and be honest. Their additional responsiblity is to put their work and its possible applications in the public domain. Rotblat does not want to distinguish between scientific knowledge and its application, but the very nature of science is that it is not possible to predict what will be discovered or how these discoveries could be applied. Cloning provides a nice example. The original studies related to cloning were largely the work of biologists in the 1960s. They were studying how frog embryos develop and wanted to find out if genes which are located in the cell nucleus were lost or permanently turned off as the embryo developed. This involved putting the nuclei of cells from later stages in development, including adult cells, back into an egg from which the nucleus had been removed to determine whether the genes in that nucleus would allow the egg to develop.

Steve to Stephanie Essay

1) How can Henrietta help Steve transition in a company where not everybody is supportive? Henrietta can help Steve transition in a number of ways. Because the idea of switching gender is abstract idea, not every person will be accepting of it. In fact most people will be unaccepting of it being that they are morally agaist the idea of switching gender. Just as people are hesitant to accept gays, the dominant male female role stereotypes have been long ingrained in most cultures and most people accept them as â€Å"normal†. I believe the first thing that must be done to help Steve and LaSalle with the gender transition is to educate people about the process. People need to be aware of the reasons someone would choose to do this so they can understand why and possibly make some sense of it on their own. However the timing of this education needs to be carefully planned as to what the company and Steve believe is best. After education the Human Resource team should be leveraged to carefully monitor the situation and help those who are struggling to accept Steve’s life choice. 2) Does Steve’s transition risk integration of CatalCon, or any stakeholder relationships? Be Specific! Yes Steve gender transition will more than likely affect CatalCon and Lasalle’s integration for a number of reasons. First being that Steve’s sales partner Alex already has a bad opinion of Steve due the fact that Steve was given the Sale’s Director position over Alex. Alex being the number two at CatalCon before the acquisition believes he is much more qualified for the position though his 20 years of experience. Because there is already residual resentment the news of this gender transition angers Alex because he believes it is morally wrong and doesn’t believe in such a thing. Also he thinks that many of the shareholders and customers who are mostly conservative will not like this announcement. Alex believes they will lose business because of this and there is nothing the company can to stop it because they cannot fire Steve due to gender discr imination state laws. Also Alex is a very respected sales man and losing him would be detrimental to the CatalCon acquisition. He is needed for his understanding of CatalCon products that sales people from LaSalle will just not have due to lack of experience. 3) How far should firms go to protect and accommodate employee differences in the workplace? The firm has an obligation to protect Steve’s privacy, as this is a medical issue. So while they might want to settle things in ways that will make the majority happy, there are laws that force you to look out for the little guy. Any firm has a human resource team that is obligated to mediate employee disputes. But no matter what type of employee is the majority they must take actions to provide an equal and safe working environment for everyone. I believe that Henrietta made a mistake sending out a memo to specific people in the firm. Memos can be misplaced and seen by the wrong eyes. This could lead to a privacy lawsuit and should be avoided by waiting to announce sensitive material until a time that is right for the subject and the firm. Some employees may have issues other than medical that need to be met such as religious differences and cultural differences where dress code must be bent. I believe if there are differences that need to be accommodated for they most likely have laws that protect those differences. Therefore you will have some sort of guidelines as to how you many attempt to accommodate them.

Information Systems and Operations Management

Please read the article: Zara: Fast fashion from savvy systems available for free at http://www. flatworldknowledge. com/pub/gallaugher/41128#pdf-7 This article makes up Chapter 1 of the free, open access book titled, Information Systems: A Manager's Guide to Harnessing Technology, by John Gallaugher. Please ensure that you read the entire Chapter 1 of the book consisting of 3 parts (Part 1 Introduction; Part 2 Don’t Guess, Gather Data; and Part 3 Moving Forward). Now answer the questions below: Question 1: The Zara case shows how information systems can impact every single management discipline.Which management disciplines were mentioned in this case and how does technology impact each? (50% of the total mark) The case study mentioned management disciplines including information gathering, processing, storing, distributing and use of information. Gather market information One of the successful factors in Zara is they know the market trends. Zara deploys the latest information technology tools to facilitate the information exchange and collect market data through both formal and informal channels – the PDA and POS systems.The Personal Digital Assistants (PDA) system Zara’s store managers were given personal digital assistants (PDAs) so they could gather customer input outside an office setting. The staff in Zara would regularly gather information from customers, such as the trend of fashion customers preferred and feedbacks of garment that they would like to see more in the shop. The range of information collected included colours, length and even small detail of the clothes were collected from customers through front line shop staff.Besides getting information directly from customers, they staff have another channel to gather customers’ preferences. The staff will investigate the unsold items that customers tried on but didn’t buy, to find out their preferences in cloth, color, or styles offered among the products in stock. T he Point-of-sale (POS) system Besides the informal channel to gather customers needs (through conversations), the head office will collect information through a formal channel, the store’s point-of-sale (POS) system.This system is a transaction process that captures customer purchase information, in order to show how garments rank by sales. Since the POS system is linked with the PDA system, in less than an hour, managers can send updates that combine the hard data captured at the cash register with insights on what customers would like to see. Information on customer needs and trend information collected daily are fed into a database at head office regularly. The PDAs support the connection between the retail stores and head office.Each store managers are assigned with market specialists, they will communicate regularly through PDAs to transmit all kinds of information to head office. [1] Zara store management and staff use PDAs and POS systems to gather and analyze customer preference data to plan future designs based on feedback, rather than prediction. Data driven product development The data collected from PDA as well as POS system formed a valuable marketing database and provided data allows the design teams to plan styles and issue re-buy orders based on feedback rather than hunches and guesswork.The goal is to improve the frequency and quality of decisions made by the design and planning teams. The designers from â€Å"The Cube† follow evidence of customer demand. When they deign new garments or decide which kind of fabric, cut and price points to be used or modify existing designs, they will base on information from PDAs and POS rather than create trends by pushing new lines via advertisements or catwalk fashion shows. Vertically integrated value chain Inditex is a vertically integrated group, it owns several layers in its value chain.The distribution center in La Coruna equipped with up-to-date equipment for fabric dyeing and processing , cutting and garment finishing. The vertically integrated ability allows the group to response faster against the latest fashion trend including provide the appropriate for new lines. Zara’s IT expenditures are low by fashion industry standards. The spectacular benefits reaped by Zara from the deployment of technology have resulted from targeting technology investment at the points in the value chain where it has the greatest impact, and not from the sheer magnitude of the investment.This is in stark contrast to Prada’s experience with in-store technology deployment. Inventory control Zara uses Toyota-designed logistics system and overnight parcel services to manipulate items stocked in the five-million-square-foot distribution center in La Coruna, or a similar facility in Zaragoza in the northeast of Spain. About two and a half million items were handled every week and none of them stayed in the warehouses more than 3 days. Before sending to each store, clothes are i roned in advance and packed on hangers, with security and price tags fixed beforehand.This system helps staff in Zara utilize their time efficiently with the inventory during busy periods. Just-in-time manufacturing (JIT) The JIT approach to manufacturing involves timing the delivery of resources so that they arrive just when needed. Inventory optimization models help the firm determine how many of which items in which sizes should be delivered to each specific store during twice-weekly shipments, ensuring that each store is stocked with just what it needs.Trucks serve destinations that can be reached overnight, while chartered cargo flights serve farther destinations within forty-eight hours. And the firm can coordinate outbound shipment of all Inditex brands with return legs loaded with raw materials and half-finished clothes items from locations out-side of Spain thanks to the revised shipping models through Air France–KLM Cargo and Emirates Air. Zara’s products are manufactured for a limited production run. This approach encourages customers to buy right away and at full price.The constant parade of new, limited-run items also encourages customers to visit often. Staff allocation Headquarter of Zara uses software to arrange staff’s roster. The manpower is allocated based on each store’s forecasted sales volume, with locations staffing up at peak times such as lunch or early evening. The firm claims these more flexible schedules have shaved staff work hours by 2 percent. This constant refinement of operations throughout the firm’s value chain has helped reverse a prior trend of costs rising faster than sales.Zara’s combination of vertical integration and technology-orchestrated supplier coordination, just-in-time manufacturing, and logistics allows it to go from design to shelf in days instead of months. [pic] Question 2: Do you think information systems are a strategic liability for Zara? Give reasons. (50% of the total mark) Porter’s five forces analysis To understand the business condition of fashion industry, we need to use Porter’s five forces model. It is shown how the market behaved at the very beginning of the company according to the Porter’s 5 forces analysis.Bargaining Power of Suppliers This is how much pressure suppliers can place on a business. If one supplier has a large enough impact to affect a company’s margins and volumes, then they hold substantial power. †¢ There are many suppliers for raw material †¢ There are many substitutes †¢ Presence of substitute inputs †¢ The nature of the products allow to storage them long time, unless the trends conditions. Bargaining Power of customers This is how much pressure customers can place on a business. †¢ Switching to another (competitive) product is simple The product is not extremely important to the buyer; they can do without it for a period of time. †¢ Customers are price s ensitive †¢ Buyer do not have switching costs †¢ Many availabilities of existing substitute products †¢ Buyer is price and style sensitive †¢ Low purchase volume per customer. †¢ Highly dynamic, customers preference changes frequently in short time Competitive rivalry within an industry This describes the intensity of competition between existing firms in an industry. Garment industry is highly competitive generally earn low returns.For many industries, this is the major determinant of the competitiveness of the industry. Sometimes rivals compete aggressively and sometimes rivals compete in non-price dimensions such as innovation, marketing, etc. †¢ It is a mature industry with very little growth. Companies can only grow by stealing customers away from competitors. †¢ It has a lot competitors in the industry about the same size †¢ Little differentiation between competitors’ products and services. Key competitors include Gap,, Benetton, H, Forever 21 , etc.Pfeifer, (2008); Rohwedder and Johnson, (2008) H has increased the frequency of new items in stores, Forever 21 and Uniqlo get new looks within 6 weeks and Benetton, a firm that previously closed some 90 percent of US stores, now replenishes stores as fast as once a week †¢ The barriers to get out of the industry are low in distribution and high in manufacture †¢ Since the chances of clothes getting damaged before sold is very little, the storage costs would be low †¢ High manufacture costs because of high raw material cost and manpower cost Threat of new Entrants No distribution barriers to entrance because it only consists on low costs of renting a shop, no administrative restrictions, low initial capital to start †¢ Reduced reaction possibilities in front of new entrants †¢ In production, there are barriers for the existence of economies of scale. †¢ The start up capital needed is high †¢ Need time to build up relationship wi th supply chain and suppliers Threat of substitute products What is the likelihood that someone will switch to a competitive product or service? If the cost of switching is low, then this poses to be a serious threat. Buyer can easily found substitute †¢ Relative price performance of substitutes †¢ Buyer switching costs is low †¢ Perceived level of product differentiation †¢ Fad and fashion †¢ Technology change and product innovation The main issue is the similarity of substitutes. For example, if the price of coffee rises substantially, a coffee drinker is likely to switch over to a beverage like tea because the products are so similar. If substitutes are similar, then it can be viewed in the same light as a new entrant. Zara’s success factorsThe success factors/ competitive advantages include always producing the style that customers are looking for, short production time from design stage and limited quantities. Information system plays strategic l iability in the following: – Collecting Market Data & customer’s needs – Product development – JIT production Considering the information technology investment helping Zara to maintain it’s competitive advantages, it is strategic liability for the firm. ———————– [1] Zara's Secret for Fast Fashion, Kasra Ferdows, Michael A. Lewis and Jose A. D. Machuca (http://hbswk. hbs. edu/archive/4652. html)

The American Revolution Was a Major Turning Point Essays

The American Revolution Was a Major Turning Point Essays The American Revolution Was a Major Turning Point Paper The American Revolution Was a Major Turning Point Paper Alex Griffen P6 9/28/11 The American Revolution was a major turning point in American history and greatly affected Americas future. The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, to become the United States of America. It fundamentally changed the American society politically, socially and economically by the establishments of the Declaration of Independence and conflicts over stronger states rights or stronger central government, paper currency, womens rights and slavery. The American Revolution brought enormous effects on the Americans society polticially by new means of government. One major approach to endure in this change was the Declaration of Independence. George Washington declared a change in the society because he thought it was time to become independent from the Britains crown. If men were angels, no government would be necessary. This statement supports the reason of wanting independence because being under the Britains crown was unfair and Americans did not want that type of government any more. This action also led to the American colonies wanting to self-govern their own society. After the Declaration of Independence the United States of America now had to decide what type of government would watch over this new country. After the Constitution, the writers of the Constitution debated over a strong central government versus strong states. The Federalist Party supported a strong central government and was made up of mostly Northern industrialists. The Southern plantation owners mostly supported the Democratic-Republicans who stood for states rights. The Democratic-Republicans thought that a state had the right to overrule a Federal law if they thought it did agree with the state constitution. The Northern states argued that the Federal government had declared slavery illegal and the Southern states argued that they were independent of the Federal government and could make their own laws. Paper currency in American society of the time period was not established as a reliable currency for the economy. At first, the paper currency was not worth any amount at all. This was not working out because money had no value which led to confusion of the value of money. Some Americans were crying out for paper currency. This quote supports the feeling that the Americans had on paper currency because they believed if they had a printed document that states to be owned and published as their own, it would lean on toward of being independent from Britain. The First Bank of the United States, chartered in 1791, and the Coinage Act of 1792, began the era of a national American currency. The Constitution denied individual states the right to coin and print money. Another problem was that the British successfully waged economic warfare by counterfeiting Continentals on a large scale. Continentals were worth 1/40th of their face value by 1778 and this cause the currency to be worthless. The currency was soon to be taken out of circulation. Being under the Britains crown was compared to slavery and women in American society did not have many rights. Women had not rights in any part of the community unless they were widows. Women in the colonies were compared as being a dog on a leash and demanded not to speak a word unless spoken too. The women were fed up because they felt as if they should not even appear in public since they had no rights. As Molly Wallace clearly explained, ught ever to appear in so public a manner,. This shows how women in the society felt useless and unimportant because they had no roles. Also women wanted the same rights as men. Women in the society was just fed up and wanted equality. Slavery played a big role before the American Revolution in North America for mostly farmers of the south. The Britains always thought of an easier way to con duct tasks. One task they wanted to make easier was labor, which pin pointed to slavery. The British thought if slaves were placed in their society they would be free of labor and money because slaves did not need much. The Americans thought different. They felt as if all men should be created equal and have the same rights. Which this fact supports the meaning of the Declaration of Independence. The Americans exclaimed that there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude,. This supports the beliefs of the Americans not wanting slavery and the way they wanted to control their lands. The Revolution had contradictory consequences for slavery. In the South, slavery became more entrenched. In the North, every state freed slaves as a result of court decisions or the enactment of gradual emancipation schemes. Yet even in the North, there was strong resistance to emancipation and freeing of slaves was accompanied by the growth of a virulent form of racial prejudice. There were many factors that fundamentally changed the American society during the American Revolution. Having the Declaration of Independence, paper currency, limitation on womens rights and slavery were just a few of those factors that sculpted the American Society. Although America had found shape as an independent nation, many changes were soon to come after the American Revolution.

Latin Translation Resources and Tools

Latin Translation Resources and Tools Whether you want to translate a short English phrase into Latin or a Latin phrase into English, you can not just plug the words into a dictionary and expect an accurate result. You cant with most modern languages, but the lack of a one-to-one correspondence is even greater for Latin and English. If all you want to know is the essence of a Latin phrase, some of the so-called online translation tools for Latin may help. Perhaps you want to know what Marcus in silvam vocat means. The Latin-English translation program I tried translated it as Marcus upon woods vocat. That is obviously not quite right because vocat isnt an English word. Its not a great translation. Since I used that online tool, Google has added its own translator that worked efficiently  enough but has been commented on negatively by many users. If you want a thorough, accurate translation, you will probably need to have a human do it for you, and you may have to pay a fee. Latin translation is a skill that takes a substantial investment in time and money, so translators deserve to be compensated for their efforts. In case youre interested in developing the skill of translating Latin, there are Latin online courses and other self-help methods for beginning Latin as well as Latin degree programs in colleges and universities. Between the two extremes, however, there are some useful tools on the Internet. Parser A parser, like The Latin Parser, tells you basic facts about a word. Depending on what information the parser spits out, you can determine which part of speech the word is and other essentials you need to know in order to translate. You might use a parser if you realize that the Latin phrase you want to understand has 1 (or 2) unknowable word and a bunch of other words you can almost decipher. In the Marcus in silvam vocat example, Marcus looks enough like a name, that you neednt look it up. In looks like the English word of the same spelling, but what about silvam and vocat? If you dont even know what part of speech they are, a parser will help, since its job is to tell you its person, number, tense, mood, etc., if its a verb, and its number, case, and gender  if its a noun. If you do know the words in question are accusative singular and 3d singular, present active indicative, you probably also know that the noun silvam translates as forest/wood and the verb vocat as calls. At any rate, a parser and/or dictionary can help with little bits of Latin like this. Dont use the parser to find the Latin for an English word. For that, you need a dictionary. Assuming you have a vague familiarity with Latin, a parser will tell you the possible forms of a given word. This will help if you cant remember the endings of the paradigms, but understand their purposes. Quick Latin includes a dictionary. Latin Dictionary and Grammar Aid This program does not require that you download. You can use it for exploring- trying to figure things out on your own, since you can insert endings (a list of which is on the page) or stems. VISL Pre-analyzed Latin sentences This resource from Syddansk University seems an extremely useful program for people teaching themselves Latin, but it only deals with pre-selected sentences. It doesnt translate the Latin into English at all, but shows the relationships among words by means of tree diagrams. If you have ever tried diagramming a convoluted Latin sentence, you will understand what an imposing task this is. By means of a tree you can see how the words relate to each other; that is, you can tell that one word is part of a phrase begun by another word- like a preposition leading a prepositional phrase. The pre-selected sentences are from standard Latin authors, so you may find the help you need. Translation Service If you need more than a quick approximation of a phrase of Latin, and cant do it yourself, youll need help. There are professional, fee-charging services, like Applied Language Solutions Latin Translation Service - English to Latin Translation. Ive never used them, so I cant tell you how good they are. There are now Latin Translators, with prices spelled out up front. Both claim the lowest prices, so check. A quick look suggests theyre both right- depending on the number of words and direction of Latin language translation: The Latin TranslatorClassical Turns

Read the dis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Read the dis - Essay Example Usually Starbucks like firms have both long term and short term strategies to sustain its business in the market. It is difficult for a firm to rely entirely either on short term or long term policies to compete effectively in the market. Judicious implementation of short term and long term policies will help the firm to achieve its objectives and targets. Short term objectives should be specific, time bounded and accountable in order to become effective. Starbucks concentrated heavily on short term strategies to achieve success. Between 1987 through 1990 Starbucks entered new markets, and continued to grow. At the end of 1987, there were 17 Starbucks locations, and by 1990 there were 84. During this four year growth phase Starbucks entered the markets of Chicago, Vancouver, and Portland. In 1988 the company started a mail order catalog for it's fine dark roasted coffee beans and high quality coffee equipment (Kembell) Starbucks never tried to undertake a comprehensive expansion stra tegy. They focused on establishing few more outlets every year rather than establishing numerous outlets at different countries at the same time. This strategy helped them to give more attention to all the newly opened outlets till such outlets became profitable. The above short term strategy of establishing only few outlets every year helped Starbucks to achieve its long term objective of establishing outlets at different parts of the world and manage all of them with success. In other words, the short term strategies of Starbucks are linked to the long term objectives of the firm. They have given priorities to their short term strategy of establishing few outlets at a time and manage them well in order to achieve their long term strategy of establishing as many units in different countries and manage all of them well. Business strategies and functional tactics of a firm have direct relationships. In fact business strategies are usually implemented using different functional tactic s. For example, coffee lovers always like variety while taking a coffee. They don’t like the same taste every time when they take a coffee. Starbucks know this consumer psychology very well and they have introduced many flavors in their coffee products. Starbucks introduced ‘walnut flavor of Colombia Narino Supremo, the creamy sweet Caf Verona and the smooth, buttery Sulawesi† (Kembell) etc as a result of their realization of the above consumer psychology. Some of the other functional tactics employed by Starbucks are the selling of coffee-related products, Expresso machines, stainless steel coffee filters etc. Through the selling of coffee-related products such as brewing equipment and accessories, many consumers can enjoy high quality coffee at home rather than traveling out of their way. The equipment available includes Expresso machines, stainless steel coffee filters, and Starbucks cleaner and canisters. This is another example of how Starbucks is meeting the needs of current customers as well as increasing its attractiveness to potential customers (Kembell) The above functional tactics helped Starbucks to spread the popularity of Starbucks coffee from its outlets to home. Moreover, these strategies helped Starbucks to polish its face more and to popularize its products more in the market. The name Starbucks is currently fixed firmly in the hearts of the coffee lovers because

GASB and FASB Accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

GASB and FASB Accounting - Essay Example Whereas FASB has the objective to establish and improve standards for financial accounting and reporting that will help in guiding and educating public including auditors and other users of financial statements.   GASB was constituted in 1984 to succeed National Council on Government Accounting as a standard-setting body for state and local governmental bodies, whereas FASB issues standards and other pronouncements for entities other than governmental bodies. However, when there are no pronouncements on certain issues from GASB, the pronouncements issued by the FASB shall become applicable to governmental bodies as well. So far as business organizations are concerned, they have to abide by the standards issued by FASB. Non- business organizations, non- government organizations follow FASB and the government organizations come under the domain of GASB.   GASB is very specific to state legislature while issuing pronouncements. FASB, on the other hand, issues pronouncements that are universal and cater the business on a federal basis. In fact â€Å"FASB receives many requests for action on various financial accounting and reporting topics from all segments of its diverse constituency, including investors and the SEC. The auditing profession is sensitive to emerging trends in practice, and consequently, it is a frequent source of requests. Requests for actions include both new topics and suggested review or reconsideration of existing pronouncement.†(Facts about FASB, page 1)   It is believed that governments need not show profits like other financial entities.